Let the River Run Wild or Not?
by:
Kate
Darby
Kellie
Hebert
Kristy
Fruit
Marybeth
Phillis
Throughout the 20th
Century the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Bureau of Reclamation built
many dams to meet the nation’s growing demand for water, navigation routes, and
electricity. Thousands of dams reaching heights greater than 50 feet have been
erected in the United States since the 1920s (Reisner). The ecological consequences of building dams
vary greatly from river to river, and dam to dam. Once the site of the largest salmon runs in the world, the
Columbia-Snake river system is currently a death trap for migrating fish.
The
Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) serves an area 300,000 square miles in
size, spanning through Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana and small portions of
Wyoming, Nevada, Utah and California.
BPA owns and operates more than 75% of the high-voltage transmission
grid in the Pacific Northwest, with about 80% of the power being generated from
29 federal dams (BPA Fast Facts). The
dams and the electrical system are known as the Federal Columbia River Power
System, which has the capability to provide power for some 10 million
people. Because of this cheap
hydropower, the Northwest average residential rate (5.1 cents/kWh) is relatively
low compared to the U.S. average residential rate (8.5 cents/kWh).
Fourteen
dams block the Columbia River, and twelve more block the Snake, its largest
tributary. Fortunately only eight of
these federal dams (four on the Columbia and four on the Snake) pose any threat
to the journey of the salmon. The
Columbia River dams have reaped both benefits and disasters. The dams resulted in the mass extinction of
dozens of salmon runs and the impoverishment of hundreds of local fishing
communities. However, these dams have
also provided, and continue to provide, flood control, navigation and
hydropower. Because the four Columbia
dams have been retrofitted to assist the passage of migratory smolts, the
salmon mortality has been kept at an “acceptable” low rate (Duncan). Despite the Columbia dams the pre-dam Snake
system produced great salmon runs in the 1960s. The single difference between prolific life and ultimate doom: the
four Snake River dams.
The
four 100-foot dams erected on the lower Snake River in the 1960s and 1970s—Ice
Harbor Dam, Lower Monumental Dam, Little Goose Dam, and Lower Granite
Dam—produce 4-7% of the region’s electricity (Reisner). The dams are of a type
known as “run of the river” which offer no flood control and provide no significant
storage for irrigation. The dams also
have a limited hydroelectric function, turning only one or two turbines for
months at a time while the dams of the Columbia turn, on average, ten or more
(Duncan). The most unfortunate feature
of these dams is that they serve as a death trap for smolts. If the smolts manage to escape being pureed
by turbine blades (8-15%) and avoid being plunged over spillways (2%), they are
still not in the clear. Their journey
may be delayed by sluggish water behind the dam, causing them to starve and
threatening their ability to adapt to salt water. Before the construction of the dams, the spring runoff carried
smolts up to 900 miles in just five days.
With the current dam system this same journey takes six weeks or more (Duncan). As the smolts reside in slackwater, they
encounter increased populations of bass, walleyes and other smolt-devouring
predators due to the slackwaters’ elevated temperatures. The smolts waste energy seeking river flow
since the lack of current halts the migration journey, making them even more
vulnerable and decreasing their chance of survival. Wild salmon from the Snake River Basin have declined almost 90%
in the last 30 years, with a tagged-fish study showing that less than 0.5% of
the barged salmon survive to return to their spawning grounds a few years later
(Lovett). Every population of wild
salmon has either been driven to extinction or is shielded by the Endangered
Species Act.
Although
it is the salmon that are in the spotlight, it must be recognized that the
crisis also reaches into the lives of many fish-eating species, ranging from
humans to bears and gulls to fish and insects.
In spawning rivers as much as 25-40% of the body weight of aquatic
insects and small fish consists of protein from salmon (Sims). Salmon is the sacramental fish of the
region’s Native American culture and is an important component of their
sustainable economy and religious practices (Duncan). The flow of the Snake River is denied to the Indians and to those
species that depend on salmon for nourishment, and is instead converted into
profits for Anglo industrialists.
Over
$3 billion has been spent in the past decade in efforts to revive the fishery
(Reisner). BPA alone has spent nearly
$2 billion to support Northwest fish and wildlife programs (BPA Fast
Facts). River flows have been rerouted
to by-pass turbines, fish have been transported around dams, high-powered
diversion intakes have been screened, and hatcheries have been built with only
modest improvements resulting. Attempts
to repair vanished salmon runs with hatchery fish have been failing for the
last 40 years. The wild strains of
salmon and salmon and steelhead serve as the genetic engine, while hatchery
fish are just batches of first cousins rapidly inbreeding themselves into
genetic inferiority (Duncan). It is
impossible for the replicates to simply acquire survival and migration
instincts that have been developing over thousands of years in the wild species. It is the breeding with the wild stocks that
give these artificial stocks any chance of survival; otherwise, they would
quickly be wiped out by technological incest.
In
1993 the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the so-called mind of salmon
recovery under the Endangered Species Act, proclaimed that the Columbia/Snake
hydroelectric system “poses no jeopardy” to the recovery of Snake River fish
(Duncan). Following the release of this
questionable report, NMFS was forced to appear in court where it was determined
that the agency’s science was “arbitrary and capricious”. NMFS then, in connection with the U.S. Army
Corps, undertook the most scientifically rigorous analysis of a fish species
and watershed that was ever conducted (Duncan). The conclusion after four years of research was this: technical fixes cannot restore viable runs,
but there will be an 80-100% likelihood of flourishing if the four dams of the
Snake River are removed. The
removal of the Snake River dams brings up many social, political and economical
issues that will be discussed throughout the duration of this paper.
The
people of a small town called Lewiston, Idaho, 400 miles from the ocean,
decided they wanted to be a port town. In the time of big-government spending
on projects that were often unnecessary, expensive, and usually environmentally
destructive, this dream was to become a reality; in theory, anyway. The years
1960-1970 brought four new dams to the lower Snake River, a tributary of the
Columbia River that helps make up the Columbia River Basin. These four dams,
the Ice Harbor, Little Goose, Lower Monumental, and Lower Granite, are
considered run-of-the-river dams: they offer no flood control, irrigate only 13
agribusiness farms, and furnish less than 5% of the Northwest’s electricity
(Tampa Tribune). These four dams, which were theoretically supposed to create
an economy in this small town, have destroyed the balance of the ecosystem and
hurt many of the societies of the region.
Due
to these four dams, the Snake River has experienced a 90 percent plunge in its
annual salmon run. In the 1960s, about 100,000 adult salmon returned to the
river annually, this number fell to 10,000 after the dams were built (Tampa
Tribune). Not only is this devastating on an environmental level, but also on
the societal level. The salmon is a sacred symbol to many Native American
tribes, particularly to the four Colombian River Indian tribes; the Nez Perce,
Umatilla, Yakima, and Warm Springs (VanDevelder). The salmon is vital to these
tribes' spiritual and cultural identity and well-being. The fish and its
likeness are used in religious services, ceremonies, and celebrations, which
serve to instill hope in all life, and are a continuation of traditional values
from generation to generation (www.critfc.org).
Salmon were also the source of a flourishing trade economy within the tribes,
and were the preferred way to establish a livelihood. The fish still have an
important nutritional value among the tribes as well, and with the population
of salmon so low, a major source of traditional food is missing.
The
Native American tribes value the right to fish for salmon so highly that they
wrote this right into the treaties signed in 1855. In these treaties, it is
stated that the tribes were entitled to exclusive rights to fish on the
reservations and also equal rights to common fishing areas off of the
reservations (www.critfc.org). If the
salmon die off, the government would be breaking the treaty agreements, and
could owe the tribes up to $12 billion (St. Petersburg Times).
The
Lower Snake River dams affect not only the Native American people, but many
people in the region. The salmon is an icon of the West, just like the buffalo,
and it could end up going the same direction as that massive animal. There has
been a $3 billion effort to save the salmon, from installing fish ladders and
hatcheries to collecting young salmon and barging them downstream, all of which
have not worked (Los Angeles Times). The dams' presence continues to decimate
the salmon population.
The
need to breach the four Lower Snake River dams goes beyond moral and ethical
reasons, it is also more economically sound to remove the earthen portions of
the dams than it is to leave them in place. The annual costs of the dams are
$236.2 million, from managing and operating costs, to salmon restoration
spending, to subsidies of irrigation and transportation costs (www.onrc.org). The annual costs of Snake River
being restored are 149.5 million, from providing replacement power and
transportation alternatives, to purchasing land, to restoration costs (www.onrc.org).
According to these calculations, restoring the Snake River would save
approximately $87 million every year (www.onrc.org).
The
initial cost of decommissioning the four dams is a steep $1 billion, but
compared to the $3 that have already been spent by taxpayers to protect the salmon,
this cost pales (Albany Times). The decommissioning of the dams would also
increase the average Northwest utility bill, by about $1 to $5 (Albany Times),
which is a small amount to pay to ensure the survival of a species.
Breaching
the four lower Snake River dams could generate as much as $500 million into
local economies every year (St. Petersburg Times). A restored salmon population
would allow for an increase in commercial fishing, as well as
over-the-bank-sales, which is the direst sale of the fish to the public by
Native American fishers (www.critfc.org),
which serves to help support Native American families and a traditional
livelihood. Increased recreational
activities would also add to the $500 million boost.
These
four dams on the Lower Snake River have had many negative implications on the
societies that live in the region. The decimation of the salmon population has
destroyed a traditional way of life for the four Native American tribes in the
area, by taking away a spiritual symbol and a livelihood. Non-Native Americans
have also been affected by the loss of salmon, both economically and
spiritually. The dams serve no vital purpose to society, and by removing them,
there will be an 80-100% likelihood that the salmon runs will once again
flourish.
There are several environmental problems associated with the dams present on the Snake River. Some of the problems occurring are a decrease in biodiversity of the riverine system, loss of nutrients in the river, change in river flow, impacts to fisheries, and the destruction of natural habitats that is causing a decline in the native fish populations. This will be the main focus of this section. The native fish to Snake River are salmon and steelheads, which are getting closer and closer to extinction every day. The Snake River fall Chinook salmon population is already on the Endangered Species List. This paper will walk through the causes of the fish population’s declination.
Snake River salmon and steelheads have been a valued resource to the area for a long time. They have provided food for both humans and other animals, while also providing recreation and commercial fishing. Unfortunately, today these fish are not what attracts attention to the area anymore. Instead of the fish drawing tourists into the area, it is now just the beautiful surroundings that nature blessed this area with. In the early 1990’s, 70,000 salmon entered the Snake River yearly, this number now declined to an average of less that 1,000 salmon (U.S. Department of the Interior).
The Snake River fall Chinook salmon is one of five
native anadromous fishes to the region.
They spend two to five years in the ocean, and then when they are mature
they migrate back to where they were born, the Snake River. Adult fish making their voyage back upstream
to their spawning ground usually only run across the problem of actually
reaching their destination. The adults
often have difficulty finding the man-made fish ladders to by pass the dam,
making their voyage even longer. It is
of great importance that the fish make it to their spawning ground as soon as
possible because they do not eat and loss of energy can be detrimental. Approximately four percent of adult salmon
are lost at each dam(U.S. Department of the Interior).
Once the adults reach the spawning ground the
female’s dig redds (or holes) in the river gravel to lay their eggs. Once the young hatch, they stay in the
gravel until early spring, living off egg yolk stored in their stomach. The young stay in the river for a short time
before they start their migration back to the ocean around midsummer. Snake River fall Chinook salmon are one of
the last fish to migrate back to the ocean which puts them at more of a risk
because of low water flows.
The young fishes return to the ocean is a dangerous
one. When fish reach a dam they can
become stressed, injured, or die because of contact with turbines or the dam
walls. Fish also have a risk of super
saturation going over a dam. If too
much nitrogen enters the blood stream, air bubbles form and this is very
similar to what happens to scuba divers called “the bends.” This could easily kill the fish. Then they enter a small area where they
encounter slack water pools. These
pools slow migration and create a great home for predators of salmon. Lastly, reservoirs create changes in natural
conditions. Macroscopic plants are an
important food source for the young salmon.
With all the change in the in the riverine system, these plants are
diminishing.
Currently, the federal government is taking the
young salmon out of the water and placing them in trucks. Then they barge them down past the dams and
let them free. There are many problems
with this. First of all the fish can
easily get injured when they are getting collected and transported from the
river. Once the fish are in the truck
or barge, they have lost sense of where they are at, which makes it harder for
them to migrate back to the spawning ground as adults. While also making the situation they have
been placed in stressful. Lastly, when
the fish are returned to the river they are completely confused and disoriented
thereby making them easy prey. On top
of all this, the salmon still have more dams to pass; the more dams they have
to pass the more risk that is present.
These current actions are not increasing the salmon
population, making it obvious that a new solution needs to be found; dam
removal. Removal of the four lower
Snake River dams could greatly improve the salmon population, which would more
than definitely take them off the Endangered Species List. Scientists are now saying that the removal
of these four dams could restore the salmon population to 80-99% healthy levels. Even though saving the fish on the Snake
River is the major force trying to get these dams removed there are other
aspects involved.
There are three main economical benefits from the removal of the four dams, all which could save the government money. They are cost of repair, cost of barging and trucking, and taxpayer subsidies. First, the four Snake River dams are coming up on some needed repairs soon. These repairs are estimated at $250 million. Although unsure of exactly what types of repairs are needed, this is a substantial amount of money. Also, there is a seaport in Idaho that barges fish from Lewistown, Idaho to Washington’s Tri-Cities. Maintaining this will cost $350 million over the next five years. Lastly, only one out of the four dams, Ice Harbor, produces irrigation. This dam contributes less than one percentage of the irrigated land in the Northwest. These farmers are earning approximately $1.9 million per year, and receive taxpayer subsidies of $11.2 million per year(Columbia and Snake River Campaign homepage). Extending pipelines to the new river level should not be that large of a problem considering that we are trying to save an almost extinct species.
Although the dams on the Lower Snake River create an
array of devastating environmental problems, the also produce electricity
without creating carbon dioxide. If the
government decides to remove the four dams on the Lower Snake River, they will
need to find some way to replace the lost energy. This presents a difficult problem. In solving the ecological problems created by the dams, we could
replace them with carbon-dioxide generating power and exacerbate global climate
change. However, if efforts are
consciously made to replace the hydropower with renewable energy, dam removal
could minimize environmental effects while boosting the renewable energy
market.
The Northwest Energy Coalition contends that the
four Lower Snake River dams produce and average of 1136 Megawatts of power, or
5% of the region’s electricity (Glyde, 2000).
The Northwest Energy Coalition defines the region as Oregon, Washington,
Idaho, Montana, Alaska, and British Columbia.
If the dams are not removed, federal regulations will mandate mitigation
technologies that will decrease the output to an average of 940 Megawatts
(Glyde, 2000). If the Lower Snake River
dams are removed, this power must be replaced by another source.
Without local and national government intervention,
the displaced energy could easily be replaced by increasing the production of
current coal or gas power plants. This
would result in increased carbon dioxide and NOx production and subsequently
contribute to global warming and poor air quality. However, with public encouragement, the hydropower could be
replaced by clean, renewable energy technology and energy conservation.
In April, 2000, the Natural Resources Defense
Council and the Northwest Energy Coalition released a joint study called “Going
With the Flow: Replacing Energy From
Four Snake River Dams.” The study
examined three different scenarios for energy prices from 2001-2021:
Considering that energy consumers in the Northwest
pay much less for their electricity than do consumers in the rest of the
country, these monthly increases are fairly insignificant. Furthermore, the increases in cost for the
second and third scenarios are comparable.
However, the third scenario adds the benefits of cleaner air and an
increased renewable energy market.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers conducted the
“Lower Snake River Juvenile Salmon Migration Feasibility Study” in the fall of
1999. As part of the study, the
Drawdown Regional Economic Workgroup was created to evaluate power system
replacement costs. The group includes
federal economists, states, tribes, regional stakeholders, and members of the
Northwest Power Planning Council. They
only examined replacement of the hydropower with increasing the operation of
existing power plants and building new natural gas plants. Energy conservation and the introduction of
renewable energy sources are not included in their study. The study concluded the trickle-down effect
of the hydropower replacement to be an additional $1.50- $5.30 increase in
average monthly residential electric bills (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Study,
Fall 1999).
According to the results of the two studies,
replacement of the hydropower losses by zero carbon dioxide emissions solutions
is not only economically viable, but also environmentally profitable.
REFERENCES:
Columbia and Snake River Campaign homepage – facts
on the Lower Snake River dams. http://www.columbia-snake.org/SOS-site/about/snake.htm
Glyde, Mark. “Clean Energy can Replace Four Snake
Damns”, Northwest Energy Coalition Report.
vol. 19, no. 4, 2000 April/May. p.9 (accessed at http://www.nwenergy.org).
Snake River
Dams. Hearing
before the Subcommittee on Water and Power of the Committee on Energy and
Natural Resources, United States Senate.
June 9, 1999
Marcus, David and Karen Garrison, Natural Resources
Defense Council. “Going With the
Flow: Replacing Energy From Four Snake
River Dams”, April 2000. (accessed at http://www.nrdc.org).
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Walla Walla
Division. “Lower Snake River Juvenile
Salmon Migration Feasibility Study”, Fall 1999. (accessed at http://www.nww.usace.army.mil/).
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife
Service. ENDANGERED! Past Heritage, Future Legacy. September 1994.
Albany
Times, editorial. July 26, 2000
Los
Angeles Times, editorial. June 10, 2000
St.
Petersburg Times, editorial. June 19, 2000
Tampa Tribune, editorial. July 25, 2000
VanDevelder,
P. Earth Island Institute/Earth Island Journal. Sept. 22, 2000
BPA Fast Fact. www.bpa.gov: 1998.
Duncan, David.
Second Coming. Sierra: Mar/Apr 2000, 31-41.
Lovett, Richard.
As Salmon Stage Disappearing Act, Dams May Too. Science:
23 April 1999, Vol 284, 574-5.
Reisner, Marc.
Coming Undammed. Audubon: Sept/Oct 1998, 58-65.
Sims, Grant. Tackling Salmon Problems. National Wildlife: Oct/Nov 1994, 44-47.