Table of Contents
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Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Burundi Cameroon Central African Rep. Chad Congo Cote d'Ivoire Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea-Bissau Guinea Kenya Liberia |
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Libya Madagascar Mali Mauritania Morocco Mozambique Nambia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sengal Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Tanzania Togo Western Sahara Tunisia Uganda Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe |
NOTE: The discussion falls into two parts: an introduction, where we examine the background of
contemporary trouble, with special emphasis on the patterns left by European
colonialism--followed by a case-study of NIGERIA, a newly-independent black African state
which has seen an extraordinary amount of political trouble since the British left in 1960, a
country which epitomizes the difficulties of many contemporary states in sub-Saharan black
Africa.) and SOUTH AFRICA.
Theme:
A region, long isolated from outside affairs, that was suddenly dragged into the "modern" world--rapidly, and quite incompletely--by Europeans-- British, Germans, French, Belgians who set about manipulating African affairs (including geography) to suit their own 19th century motives--freezing political patterns that had been in rapid flux, introducing radical changes in economic and social affairs, and stimulating dangerous changes in population. And where, consequently, when Europeans suddenly departed after World War II, local populations were left to cope with new geographies which were not of their own making, and which they were ill-equipped to manage. (We will note numerous analogues with the situation in South Asia).
The political facts: The dismal recurrence of three types of trouble.
1. Africans vs. outsiders: expulsion of Europeans. Subsequent great-power collisions in African vacuums. (similarities with South - and Southeast Asia).
2. Conflicts between African states. Discordances between African states. Discordances between nations and states. Nomadism. The persistence of border disputes.
3. Conflicts and catastrophes within African states. So far the major problem in the era of independence. Civil wars between national groups. Disasters in non-viable states. The rapid disappearance of democratic forms of government; the rise of authoritarian regimes. The jury is still out on whether recent moves towards more democratic and accountable systems (multiparty systems, contested elections) will succeed or last long.
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4. Racial confrontation. Except for conflict between locals and the ethnic groups from the Levant and Indian subcontinent who control retail sector among others, not so obvious a problem as in, say, the USA. Africans realize that ultimately, they are in charge of their countries. [Some academics still rail against the "new" imperialism and multinationals.] There is still conflict between black and white in areas where Europeans settled; from least to greatest problems -- Kenya, Zimbabwe, South Africa. Main consideration of racial troubles will be deferred to the discussion of South Africa).
The heritage of European colonialization. Liberia as the only African state to escape European occupation. (Ethiopia as a near-miss).
The curiously spasmodic nature of European penetration, and why it happened
that way.
The three periods of penetration.
I. Penetration before the Age of Discoveries by Europeans and Mediterranean people. Ancient Greek and Roman penetration: why the Nile was so extraordinarily important. Arab invasions and migrations: the importance of the semi-arid fringes of the Sahara. "The Great Sudan," and the analogue with the steppes of central Asia as routes of migration. Trans-Saharan routes, and the slave trade.
II. Coastal colonization by the "new Europeans." Prince Henry and his followers. Paradoxical avoidance of the interior, despite the persistent presence of wealthy and powerful political units. Examples, esp. in the Ethiopian highlands, West Africa, and the Rift Valley. Why Europeans stuck mainly to the coast until the late 19th century, and why it makes a difference in contemporary African affairs.
1. The physical facts: an introductory bit about plate tectonics and Africa
-- The coast itself, and why Europeans found it hard to cope with. The shape of the coast: anchorages, fresh water, and physical safety.
-- The difficulties in getting inland. Escarpments and falls. The example of the Congo(now Zaire) river.
-- Climate and vegetation: Persistent European difficulty in coping with unfamiliar environments. Prevalence of disease, some known (malaria) some not. European perceptions of what constituted a "correct" environment, and how the African coast failed to meet expectations. Why the voyage from Europe to Capetown seemed (and was) so long.
2. The results
-- The facts: patterns of European colonies before 1870.
-- The image: Africa as a dangerous, backward, and largely worthless land.
III. The burst of colonization of the 1880s, why it took the form it did, and its profound influence on the geography of politics in contemporary Africa.
1. The rush inland. The main contenders, and the particular animosity between England and France. Hints of mineral wealth. The collision in the Sudan and elsewhere.
2. The Congress of Berlin (1884-85) and the freezing of Africa. What Bismark did (and what Germany got as a result). The basic geography of British and French imperial dominions in Africa. Where the other European powers fitted in. The Dutch. Portugal's fossil "empire." Italian fiascos.
3. What the Europeans tried to do, and what they did. (Analogues with Southeast Asia).
-- Forms of economic development. Plantations: West African examples. Transportation lines: example of the Angola-Katanga railroad.
-- The political freeze, and its effect on tribal power structures.
-- The gradual discovery of African mineral wealth. Gold and precious gems. The copper belt and strategic metals. The slow-dying myth that Africa was deficient in fossil fuels.
-- Demographic effects--largely unintentional. White settlement in central Africa. The import of overseas Indians in East and South Africa. Seeds of the population explosion.
-- The geography of rising expectations. Urbanization and education.
IV. The end of colonial rule (1945-1975). The basic question of how to make a nation-state where none existed before. The example of NIGERIA.
Illustrative Information, Newspaper Clips, Etc.
Portugal was the European country that pioneered the overseas exploration, beginning with the islands and Africa, that eventually gave the continent the world. For reasons such as Venetian dominance of the eastern trade and blockages of trade by troubles in the east, efforts to find new routes to the fabled Indies sped up in the 1400s. Portugal was the place where these efforts crystallized. (Spain might have been, as it was later, an equally good choice. But it was still engaged in the end stages of the Reconquista -- expulsion of the Moors. And their last redoubts were in the south, exactly the place with the best acces to the Atlantic.)
Development in ship and sail design and navigation were encouraged by Prince Henry the Navigator. Financing for expeditions was available from Venice's Italian rival city states, from the Flemish and others. Madeira was occupied in 1420, the Azores rediscovered in 1430, and between 1433 and 1482 black Africa's coast from Cape Bojador to the Congo river was opened for trade and control at critical points. According to Fernand Braudel (The Perspective of the World: Civilization and Capitalism 15th=18th Century. Volume 3. New York: Harper & Row, 1982) Africa provided ivory, malagueta (a pepper), gold (about 14,000 ounces a year on average) and slaves (1000 a year in the 1450s, rising to 3000 a year soon after). Portugal claimed a monopoly on trade with Africa, signing a treaty in 1479 with Spain that presaged the 1494 Treaty or Tordesillas that divided the non-European world between the two. The returns were good, gold giving a profit of 400 to 500 percent. By 1488, Vasco da Gama established that a sea passage existed between the Atlantic and Indian Ocean. Given that certainty is it surprising that the Portuguese turned down Columbus with his risky proposition to sail west to discover the Indies? Still, they could have had it all!
Disease -- from Oliver Ransford, Let the Sickness Cease. London: John Murray, 1983.
In the 18th century, between 25-75 percent of white newcomers died in their first year on the Guinea Coast. p.54
Between 1804 and 1825 more than 60 percent of church missionaries in Africa died of disease. p.54
Between 1822 and 1830, of 1568 soldiers in one detachment in W. Africa, 1298 died there of "climatic fever", 125 died on the voyage home, and half of the survivors died of tropical disease after returning to England; only 57 were discharged as "fit." pp. 54-55.
The Royal Navy anti-slavery squadron (patrolling W. African coastal waters, AVW) was known as "The Coffin Squadron." Bathurst, Gambia was known colloquially as "half die." p. 55.
Among the most pernicious diseases is sleeping sickness. Its long term effects on health and vitality may have been a major reason for the western view of Africans as being slackers and dumb. p.127.
Ransford associates population movement with increases in mortality, "new" diseases, etc. p.73. If this is so, the introduction of new all weather roads, for instance, may not be an unalloyed blessing!
Population declines after European contact are well known in the American case. Ransford says similar things happened in Africa as the Europeans penetrated the interior and colonized. For instance, in the Belgian Congo (current name, Zaire) population estimates are: 1880 40 million; 1910 15.5 million; 1933 9.25 million. In French West Africa population estimates are: 1911 20 million; 1921 7.5 million; 1931 2.5 million; 1936 3.5 million. p. 76. If these numbers are true and representative, the current "population explosion" in Africa may only be returning numbers to previous levels.
While it is often a source to be used with caution, there is a very interesting special report "The Agony of Africa" in TIME, September 7, 1992, pages 40-53. It may not give all the background necessary to interpret the facts but does cover corruption, economic growth problems, population explosion and urbanization problems, starvation, and refugee problems. There is also a section on Somalia and two pages on an African-American perspective on Africa.
"Africa: a Flicker of Light," from the Economist, 5 Mr 94, p. 21 says that economic reforms and a new political realism are getting some results but there are big obstacles to recovery --to living standards of the early 1970s. [Even the Economist makes mistakes. See if you can find one in the map in this article.] One problem is that people, especially in cities where reporters are around to describe things, are angry about rising prices of (sometimes heavily subsidized goods like food or even gasoline), and are ready to take to the street to protest and riot. Uganda, Ghana, Ethiopia and Eritrea are spotlighted as places where leaders are willing to take responsibility rather than blame the west for all their troubles.
"Doctor discovers the right medicine for Ghana," Howard W. French, NYT 8 De 95, A4 talks about the good and bad experiences of Emmanuel Tuffour, who returned to Ghana to open a modern clinic after being a doctor in Cleveland, USA. A major problem was encounter with ancestral values and Ghana's old socialist ideas. He believes in individual responsibiity and effort but has been swarmed on by relatives, long lost kin and others demanding jobs or free care. And well off people have come to his clinic demanding treatment for which they refuse to pay.
"Political chaos in Zaire disrupts efforts to control AIDS epidemic," Kenneth B. Noble, NYT, 22 Mr 94, D1 says the epidemic in Zaire is accelerating; hospitals say up to 80 percent of patients are infected with HIV. There's worry that the country's rate of infection may exceed that in East African countries like Uganda and Rwanda, the hardest hit so far by the virus.
"Where Uganda and Kenya collide," Donatella Lorch, NYT, 2 Ap 94, 4 talked of the situation in Busia, the border town where much of the official trade between the countries passes. As it says, 75 percent of Uganda's imports come through Kenya and it's been under pressure from the larger neighbor to conform to its wishes.
"Africa's economies: Reforms Pay off," Thomas L. Friedman, NYT, 13 Mr 94, 18 discusses a World Bank report that said that African countries which had adopted suggested reforms involving tough austerity measures had better performance than those that hadn't. Critics have noted since that the austerity measures affect the middle class and the worst off. More advanced regions and ethnic groups will cement their advantage over more backward areas and peoples.
"An Ice Age Nudge for Human Evolution in Africa," Science, 264(14 JA 94), 173-174 reports on research by Peter Menocal of Columbia's Lamont-Doherty Laboratory that ice age swings in the northern hemisphere may have created the conditions necessary for the evolution of hominids by turning the climate in African savannah areas cooler and dryer.
"French held the strings in Africa: top aide's memoir shows a dark side," Howard W. French, NYT, 28 Fe 95, A14 discusses Jacques Foccart's memoir indicating he was a "puppeteer" in ex-colonies in Africa. Leaders not friendly enough were frozen out (of aid, etc.), others eliminated. "...Africans..sadness over the ease with which their leaders were manipulated, more often to satisfy French interests than to address the needs of their own countries...Nowhere..more true than in the Central African Republic where..the French-installed dictator Jean-Bedel Bokassa...insisted on calling de Gaulle "Papa." The French view(ed) American interest in Africa as scarcely more acceptable than that of the Soviet Union. "Coup leader expects surrender." AP, CDT, 5 Oc 95, 7A talks of Bob Denard's latest escapade where he surrendered after being cornered by French commandos after taking over the country. "End of an Affair," The Economist, 12 Au 95, 35-36 says "France is reconsidering its long love affair with its former African colonies" largely due to the fact that they are costing too much to support at a time when French finances are under strain. "France has always regarded its francophone 'commonwealth' in Africa as part of its ticket to world-power status." The French give money, arms, support against coups of which they disapprove, technicians; in exchange they get prestige, a cushy set of jobs for French expatriates, and extraordinary privileges for their enterprises, especially oil companies.
"Blood and earth," The Economist, 23 Se 95, 16-17 talks about whether multi-ethnic countries, given the lessons of Rwanda and Burundi as well as Bosnia can ever be harmonious. They are pessimistic, talking about returns to peace only after partition and enforcement of greater homogeneity. But they note some success stories. Still, multi-ethnic states are fragile.
"Malaria's genetic game of cloak and dagger," Natalie Angier, NYT, 22 Aug 95, C1-, discusses recent findings, including the fact that the malaria parasite has an evolutionary "strategy" of changing some signature proteins to fool the immune system -- and drugs. I remember as recently as the 1970s optimistic talk about eradicating malaria using DDT to control the mosquitos transmitting the parasite and chloroquine to treat already infected people. The fantasy that infectious diseases were on the verge of being conquered has been revealed as such with tuberculosis, cholera, pneumonias among others now back on the "killer" list.
African news is scarce in U.S. media and focuses on the problems not the successes. That's one reason African leaders and intelligentsia supported the 1970s proposal for a New World Information Order. But the NYT is better than others. On Nigeria, for instance you should read "Nigeria reveals census' total, 88.5 million, and little more" NYT, 3/25/92, p.12. On South Africa, you will see more reports than on most African countries (except the one with the most current disaster). An example of interest is "From die-hard camps, the roll of the war drums" NYT, 28/12/92, p.a4.
"Africa's economies: Reforms pay off," NYT 13Mr94 P18, Thomas L. Friedman discusses world bank classification of African nations' GDP change based on how well or poorly they did in macroeconomic policy. Those who reformed generally did better. Looked at 29 sub=Saharan economies in two periods 1981-86 = economic crisis and 1987-1991 when all introduced economic reforms. Those who'd done the tough work earlier did better.
SOUTH AFRICA. "South Africa confronts rapid spread of AIDS," NYT 16Mr93, a1,a6 says that by the end of the dedcade, 3 million, more than 10 percent of the adult population(!) will carry the virus and 160,000 will have AIDS. Five years later about one in four adults will have antibodies to HIV. About 3/4 of the national health budget will be needed said a study by the Medical Research Council.
ERITREA. "Onions potatoes and T-54s," Economist 20Mr93, p.52 speculates that the feeling of national identity may have been forged by the 30 year war with Ethiopia. Eritreans are mixed: nine main groups with their own languages and split about equally between Muslims and Christians. Muslims are lowlanders, Christians highlanders. Tensions exist. EPLF governs; Muslim Eritrean Liberation Front once in vanguard. To minimize tensions, schoolchildren over 11 now taught in English.
ANGOLA. "A new crisis engulgs Angola as the rebels make big gains," Keneth B. Noble, NYT, 29Ja93, a1 500,000 or so have died already in the war. but in the last 3 weeks tens of thousands have died in the most intense fighting. Millions have been forced from their homes and 1.5 million face starvation. "Savimbi wants the whole and in his position, with most of the country effectively under his control why should he compromise" said a western diplomat.
"Angolan president says his forces are rearming after rebel gains," Kenneth B. Noble, NYT 2Fe93 a5 reports President Jose Eduardo dos Santos saw no defeat but no early end to fighting with UNITA. Accused UNITA of receiving aid from South Africa and in recent weeks from Zaire.
"Soldiers battle for food in besiged Angola city," Kenneth B. Noble, NYT 25Mr93 a12 talks of troubles of the UN food distribution services in Malanje near Luanda. Food is still plentiful in the capital.
"Angolan rebels rebound within reach of a victory," Kenneth B. Noble, NYT 13Ap93 a1 says that after a major government offensive where officials in Luanda were predicting imminent collapse of UNITA, things have swung back.
"UN brokered peace talks fail to achieve cease-fire in Angola," NYT 22My93, p5 after the US recognition of the MPLA government. Neither side can defeat the other, both want peace, but there's too much distrust according to a western diplomat. Fewer than 500 observers were available for last year's elections and the budget was only a quarter of what is had been for Namibia, one fifth of the population.
"Angola rebels seize oil center and old base," NYT 21Ja93, p.a5 discusses the renewed civil war. The US supported, Jonas Savimbi led, UNITA did not win the UN-sponsored election as it expected and reopened hostilities. After being thrown out of the capital, Luanda, and apparently losing their capital at Huambo in central Angola, UNITA retook Huambo and seized a petroleum production center in the oil rich area on the Atlantic coast north of Luanda.
"62 dead after Angolan rampage of rape and murder of Zaireans," NYT 24Ja93, p.16 reports on reactions of Angolans in the capital, Luanda, to reports that Zaire was helping UNITA rebels. The UN brokered peace settlement in 1991 that supposedly ended 16 years of civil war broke down after the UNITA rebels rejected the results of a national election (reported fair by UN observers).
"Angola says it shot down South Africa transport plane," NYT 24Ja93, p.16 reports the government claim of shooting down an RSA transport flying out of Jamba, former southern base of the UNITA rebel movement. A South African spokesman denied one of its planes was down and that his government was helping the rebels.
"Ghanaian vice-President attacked by President," BBC World Service, 29 De 95 reported that vice-President Akah had complained to police that he had been attacked by the President, Jerry Rawlings, at a cabinet meeting. He'd been complaining about corruption problems involving the President when he was punched in the face and kicked several times in the groin. His account was confirmed by some cabinet colleagues.
Please email comments or suggestions to Dr. A.V. Williams
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All material on these pages are copyright property of Dr. A. V. Williams and Professor P.F.Lewis, Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University |
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